Tetrachloroethylene (PCE) and Trichloroethylene (TCE) are chlorinated liquid hydrocarbons, primarily used as degreaser agents for the cold cleaning of fabricated metal parts. They serve as general solvents for resins, fats, oils, waxes, rubber, paints, cellulose esters and ethers, and varnishes [1]. In the industry, both chemicals are of occupational concern because of their high toxicity levels and widespread usage; they have recently become the primary pollutants in most of the state and federal Superfund sites [2]. Moreover, traces of these harmful compounds have been found to occur in underground and surface water sources as a result of inappropriate manufacturing, consumption, and disposal practices [3].
Chlorinated solvents are usually difficult to biodegrade, and they pose a significant and continuing threat to the United States’ potable water supplies, as well as the worker’s welfare. Both PCE and TCE have been associated with toxic effects in the kidney and liver, and can also cause depression in the central nervous system, reproductive dysfunction, higher cancer incidence, among other diseases. In this regard, business owners and consumers, who are still employing these compounds, should keep an eye on the latest legislation and potential implications when using the chemicals, as well as identifying available alternatives.
What is Tetrachloroethylene?
Tetrachloroethylene, also known as perchloroethylene (PCE or PERC), is a nonflammable colorless liquid used for dry cleaning operations and as a starting material to synthesize other compounds. It has been associated with mild side effects after short-term exposure such as upper respiratory irritation, reversible mood, dizziness, sleepiness, headaches, and coordination impairment. Likewise, long-term exposure leads to severe adverse reactions such as cognitive damage, kidney & liver diseases, immunotoxicity, reproductive issues, and potential cancer development. As a result, the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and other international organizations have classified it as likely to be carcinogenic to humans [4].
In the United States, PCE production peaked at 350 million kg in 1980 when it was introduced as a replacement alternative to trichloroethylene (TCE) for metal cleaning, vapor degreasing, textile processing, dry cleaning, and as a chemical precursor [5]. Since then, tetrachloroethylene production has been declining because of its toxic and rapid evaporation attributes, which have made it detectable in ground and surface water sources, air, soil, food, and even breast milk samples. The latest industrial reports indicate that 215 manufacturing companies have been continuously producing close to 65 million lbs. of PCE annually, and 22 other facilities import 26.5 million lbs. of the chemical into the country [6].
Recently, Superfund site investigations have been conducted involving the nearby communities to take robust response actions against tetrachloroethylene contamination. The first water source detection occurred in the 1990s during a routine sampling practice, and the number has been increasing since then with evidence of this substance in nearly 28% of the sites today. The major concerns resulting from inappropriate disposal of hazardous chemicals are the long-term cleanup efforts, leakage to other groundwater sources, and health risks for both humans and animals [7].
Tetrachloroethylene (PCE) Toxicity Case Studies
Multiple case studies about the side effects of tetrachloroethylene (PCE) have been reported throughout the years due to its prevalence in the market. The toxic levels and exposure pathways may change depending on the type of clinical trial that was conducted or public release addressing major contamination evidence. Table 1 presents, in chronological order, the most relevant incidents related to tetrachloroethylene exposure, including the conditions in which they occurred, as well as the average toxic levels for each case.
ACUTE TOXICITY & IRRITATION |
||||
Case (Year) |
N° of Patients |
Symptoms |
Job Description |
Toxic Levels |
1985 [8] |
1 child |
Somnolence and hyperventilation |
Accidental ingestion |
30 μg in the blood |
1990 [9] |
22 males |
The visual function was mildly affected by Per exposure, which interfered with the central nerve conduction |
Medical experiment volunteers |
10 and 50 ppm, during 4 hours for 4 days. |
NEUROTOXICITY |
||||
Case (Year) |
N° of Patients |
Symptoms |
Job Description |
Toxic Levels |
2011 [10] |
1512 people |
Risks of autism spectrum disorders, and development of drug and alcohol consumption |
Residents of Cape Cod, Massachusetts towns |
Water samples with PCE up to 80 ug/L |
2012 [11] |
99 pairs of twins |
Parkinson’s disease symptoms |
World War II Veteran Twins |
No info available |
2012 [12] |
619 participants |
Early childhood exposure was found to be associated with long-term visual decrements in adulthood |
Residents of Cape Cod, Massachusetts towns |
Water samples with PCE up to 80 ug/L |
2014 [13] |
> 150.000 people from 1975 - 1985 |
Workers exposed to polluted water were more likely to further develop different cancer types |
Marine and Naval personnel at USMC base Camp Lejeune |
215 μg/L in drinking water |
2015 [14] |
50 Employees |
Depression of the central nervous system; including dizziness and drowsiness. |
Dry-Cleaning |
Atmospheric PCE of 7 ppm |
KIDNEY TOXICITY |
||||
Case (Year) |
N° of Patients |
Symptoms |
Job Description |
Toxic Levels |
1983 [15] |
438 workers |
Mild renal tubular lesions rather than glomerular |
Dry cleaning shops |
10 ppm of PERC |
1999 [16] |
82 workers |
Minor renal tubular damage |
Dry cleaning |
2.2 - 44.6 mg/m3 PERC |
2000 [17] |
40 females |
PERC induced dose-degrading effects on the kidneys |
Ironing shop and dry cleaning |
60 – 240 mg/m3 PERC |
LIVER TOXICITY |
||||
Case (Year) |
N° of Patients |
Symptoms |
Job Description |
Toxic Levels |
1992 [18] |
141 workers |
Occupational exposure might cause early hepato-biliary changes |
Small laundries and dry cleaning shops |
PCE levels of 50 ppm on average |
1995 [19] |
5 workers |
Mild to moderate hepatic parenchymal changes |
Dry Cleaning |
PCE up to 83 ppm |
IMMUNE AND HEMATOLOGICAL TOXICITY |
||||
Case (Year) |
N° of Patients |
Symptoms |
Job Description |
Toxic Levels |
1996 [20] |
279 patients |
Connective tissue diseases, systemic sclerosis, and rheumatoid arthritis |
Dry cleaning and aircraft industry workers |
3899 mg/m3 |
2003 [21] |
660 female workers |
Scleroderma-like symptoms |
Dry cleaning and aircraft industry |
Not specified |
2010 [22] |
80 adult males |
Immunotoxicity leads to allergic diseases and autoimmune reactions |
Dry cleaning |
PCE up to 265 µg/m3 |
2015 [23] |
175 cases |
Primary Sjogren's syndrome (PSS) symptoms |
Multiple jobs, with common exposure |
Not specified |
REPRODUCTIVE & DEVELOPMENTAL TOXICITY |
||||
Case (Year) |
N° of Patients |
Symptoms |
Job Description |
Toxic Levels |
1990 [24] |
1117 female patients |
Low birth weight, congenital malformations, and spontaneous abortions |
Laundry and dry-cleaning workers |
Doses of 2 – 20 hours per week |
1991 [25] |
1926 pregnant female patients |
They had headaches, dizziness, and forgetfulness. Miscarriage risk was double, and triple for congenital anomalies |
Household use of solvent-containing products |
Doses of 10 hours per week |
1991 [26] |
34 workers |
Subtle effects on sperm quality, with less linearity in sperms swimming paths |
Dry cleaning |
Breathing samples of 2.67 µg/m3 |
2009 [27] |
1658 children |
risk of congenital anomalies, such as eye, ear irregularities, and oral cleft defects |
Households with contaminated water supplies |
Water samples with PCE up to 80 μg/L |
CARCINOGENICITY STUDIES |
||||
Case (Year) |
N° of Patients |
Symptoms |
Job Description |
Toxic Levels |
2011 [28] |
1704 workers |
Exposure to PCE was associated with an increased risk of lung, esophagus, and tongue cancer |
Dry workers in 4 US cities (San Francisco, Chicago, Detroit, and New York) |
More than 1 year of occupational exposure |
2013 [29] |
Children born during 1968 - 1985 |
Associations between drinking water contaminants and childhood hematopoietic cancers, and neural tube defects (NTDs) |
Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune personnel |
Maximum peaks of 215 ppm PCE |
2014 [30] |
> 150.000 people from 1975 - 1985 |
Workers exposed to polluted water were more likely to further develop different cancer types |
Marine and Naval personnel at USMC base Camp Lejeune |
215 μg/L in drinking water |
2016 [31] |
3851 incidents 1999 - 2008 |
Residents close to sites were at higher risk of having Diffuse large B cell lymphoma (DLBCL) |
Residents from a Georgia town |
Not specified |
2017 [32] |
775 female workers |
Exposure to PCE may increase the risk of head and neck squamous cell carcinomas in women |
Electrical assemblers, printers, welders, cutters, and equipment manufacturing |
At least 1 month of continuous exposure |
Table 1. Case Studies on Tetrachloroethylene (PCE)
What is Trichloroethylene?
Trichloroethylene (TCE) is a volatile organic solvent used in multiple manufacturing industries (e.g., aircraft, spacecraft, electronic) to remove grease from metal parts. This colorless liquid has been associated with negative health effects such as upper respiratory irritation, kidney & liver dysfunction, developmental defects, immunosuppression, neurobehavioral changes, cancer development, among many others. Although TCE can be highly convenient for vapor degreasing of metal parts, governmental entities have listed it as a hazardous chemical substance that could leach into water supplies, feed, and air [33].
Along with Perchloroethylene, Trichloroethylene has also been widely produced and commercialized since the 1920s. On a global scale, roughly 80-90% of TCE production goes exclusively to the degreasing industry, being used in paints, adhesives, varnishes, and lacquer formulations. In the United States, TCE production peaked at 280 million kg in 1970 when it had been used in the food industry for decaffeination; in cosmetics as an extractant; in pesticides for spotting fluids; and even in pharmaceutics as a volatile anesthetic. Industrial working settings are the most usual way to get exposed to trichloroethylene, which has led to serious occupational health concerns[34].
Environmental fate testing shows that TCE can easily penetrate surface soils through volatilization, which makes it likely to migrate into groundwater sources. As a result of its prevalence in the environment, the general population − especially workers − can get exposed via ingestion, inhalation, and contact. Up to 2011, this toxic compound has been identified in more than 760 Superfund sites, and the ATSDR reported that between 9 to 34% of the drinking water supply sources in the country exhibited some TCE contamination [35]. Moreover, the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey suggests that nearly 10% of Americans have detectable levels of TCE in their blood [36].
Trichloroethylene (TCE) Toxicity Case Studies
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has consistently released studies about the hazards that TCE can impose on humans, animals, and the environment. These reviews classify all health hazards in different categories according to the human tissues that are being or could be affected. Table 2 presents, in chronological order, the most relevant incidents related to trichloroethylene exposure, including the conditions in which they occurred, as well as the average levels of the compound for each case.
NEUROTOXICITY |
||||
Case (Year) |
N° of Patients |
Symptoms |
Job Description |
Toxic Levels |
1982 [37] |
11 workers |
Symptoms of trigeminal nerve impairment |
Industrial workers |
Not specified |
1990 [38] |
2 patients |
Mild to moderate cognitive, and psychomotor impairments |
Mixing metals in an electronics company |
High but not specified |
1999 [39] |
4041 people |
Links between TCE and speech, and hearing impairment |
Contaminated drinking water |
50 – 500 ppb |
2002 [40] |
236 residents |
Neurobehavioral impairments, an elevated profile of mood state scores, and excessive symptom frequencies |
Living close to electronic manufacturing plants |
1 – 100 ppm |
2003 [41] |
143 residents |
Long-term exposure to TCE is associated with neurobehavioral deficits |
Contaminated municipal water supply |
TCE >15 ppb |
KIDNEY TOXICITY |
||||
Case (Year) |
N° of Patients |
Symptoms |
Job Description |
Toxic Levels |
1993 [42] |
29 workers |
Slight and severe tubular damage in the kidneys |
Metal manufacturing |
TCE < 50 mg/m3 |
1999 [43] |
39 workers |
TRI caused persistent changes to the tubular system of the kidney |
Cardboard factory workers |
TCE is around 500 ppm |
2004 [44] |
70 workers |
High risk of kidney damage at concentrations >250 ppm |
Hospital and administrative staff |
TCE 250 ppm |
LIVER TOXICITY |
||||
Case (Year) |
N° of Patients |
Symptoms |
Job Description |
Toxic Levels |
2003 [45] |
155 male patients |
The link between exposure and male liver cancer symptoms |
Exposure to contaminated soil and groundwater |
TCE up to 1100 mg/kg |
2010 [46] |
1 male patient |
Experienced jaundice, fever, red sore eyes, and widespread rashes |
Automated degreasing machines |
22 mg/L at work |
IMMUNE AND HEMATOLOGICAL TOXICITY |
||||
Case (Year) |
N° of Patients |
Symptoms |
Job Description |
Toxic Levels |
2003 [47] |
347 Danish companies |
High risk to develop symptoms of non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma |
Iron and metal dry cleaning |
75 – 318 mg/m3 in air |
2008 [48] |
About 14500 workers |
Positive associations with several types of cancer (non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma) |
Aircraft maintenance workers |
Not specified |
2012 [49] |
80 people exposed |
A decline in peripheral blood cell counts (lymphocytes, B cells, and CD4+ T cells) |
Metal degreasing and contaminated groundwater |
Both low TCE <12ppm and high ≥12ppm |
REPRODUCTIVE & DEVELOPMENTAL TOXICITY |
||||
Case (Year) |
N° of Patients |
Symptoms |
Job Description |
Toxic Levels |
1973 [50] |
184 women |
Increase in amenorrhea |
Assembling small electrical parts |
Mean TCE of 200 mg/m3 |
1978 [51] |
A 42-year-old man |
Impotence and gynecomastia |
Aircraft mechanic |
Not reported |
1995 [52] |
197 women |
Reduced incidence of fecundability in high exposure |
Industrial hygienists |
High but not specified |
1996 [53] |
13 male workers |
A low percentage of normal sperm morphology |
Electronic factory, metal degreasing |
Mean TCE of 30 ppm |
2001 [54] |
75 men and 71 women |
Altered libido, and increase in abnormal menstrual cycle |
Contaminated groundwater |
Not specified |
CARCINOGENICITY STUDIES |
||||
Case (Year) |
N° of Patients |
Symptoms |
Job Description |
Toxic Levels |
1995 [55] |
169 men |
Over prolonged exposure time may lead to renal tumors |
Cardboard factory |
Not reported |
1995 [56] |
1391 women |
Significant increase in cervix uteri, lymphatic, and hematopoietic cancers |
Finnish maintenance workers |
Not specified |
1998 [57] |
14457 workers |
Moderate risk of breast cancer |
Aircraft maintenance |
TCE < 15 ppm |
2003 [58] |
40049 workers |
Elevated risk for non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma in offspring’s |
Blue-collar worker |
TCE of 58 mg/L in urine |
2005 [59] |
Close to 54500 cases |
The solvent was positively associated with breast cancer in women and men |
Residents in Texas |
Not reported |
2005 [60] |
6107 male workers |
Likely to develop cancer of the lungs, melanoma, esophagus, kidney, and stomach |
Aerospace company workers |
Not specified |
2007 [61] |
276 men |
TCE exposure showed a positive relation with prostate cancer |
Aerospace and radiation workers |
Not specified |
2008 [62] |
40647 female workers |
Childhood leukemia is related to mothers exposed during pregnancies |
Electronics factory |
Not specified |
Table 2. Case Studies on Trichloroethylene (TCE)
Safety Regulations for PCE and TCE
As a response to the numerous human studies on PCE and TCE, many organizations have set recommendations addressing their usage. The most relevant national and international guidelines, regulations, and advisories regarding tetrachloroethylene and trichloroethylene are summarized in Table 3. The values represent the threshold levels that employers, importers, recyclers, and sellers should follow to avoid legal sanctions and protect the public and workers from adverse health effects from exposure. For the EPA and DOE guidelines, each consecutive AEGL and PAC number is associated with a progressively severe effect that involves a higher exposure level to the chemicals.
REGULATION |
TETRACHLOROETHYLENE |
TRICHLOROETHYLENE |
||
NATIONAL |
OSHA |
Permissible exposure limit (PEL) of 100 -200 ppm, and a 300 ppm max peak (< 5min each 3h) |
Permissible exposure limit (PEL) of 100 -200 ppm, and a 300 ppm max peak (< 5min each 2h) |
|
NIOSH |
Exposure should be minimized as much as possible |
Recommended exposure limit (REL) of 2 ppm/h or 25 ppm (10h TWA) |
||
EPA |
Hazardous Pollutant |
YES |
YES |
|
AEGL-1 |
35 ppm (8 hours) |
77 ppm (8 hours) |
||
AEGL-2 |
81 ppm (8 hours) |
240 ppm (8 hours) |
||
AEGL-3 |
410 ppm (8 hours) |
970 ppm (8 hours) |
||
DOE |
PAC 1 |
35 ppm |
130 ppm |
|
PAC 2 |
230 ppm |
450 ppm |
||
PAC 3 |
1200 ppm |
3800 ppm |
||
ACGIH |
Confirmed animal carcinogenic with unknown relevance to humans |
Suspected human carcinogen |
||
INTERNATIONAL |
IARC |
Probably carcinogenic to humans |
Carcinogenic to humans |
|
WHO |
Air |
0.25 mg/m3 |
2.3 μg/m |
|
Drinking water |
0.04 mg/L |
0.02 mg/L |
Table 3. Regulations and guidelines applicable to tetrachloroethylene [63] and trichloroethylene [64]
In the upcoming years, these regulations could significantly alter the production, usage, transport, storage, and disposal of cleaning products that contain chlorinated chemicals. Official statements about maximal levels permitted in food, water, plants, atmosphere, soil, and animal and human tissues are continuously modified and may not reflect the regulatory status for the chemicals in the future. Companies and customers who employ PCE and TCE for their daily operations should pay special attention to the general discontinuation, management efforts, and feasible alternatives in the market.
Alternatives to Tetrachloroethylene- and Trichloroethylene-Based Degreasers
Tetrachloroethylene- and Trichloroethylene-based degreasers have been popular for industrial cleaning applications because they quickly dissolve oils and greases, evaporate quickly, and have a relatively low cost. As regulations on these compounds continue to tighten on the path to a full ban, Chemtronics continues to engineer alternatives with all the advantages of PCE and TCE, but without the harmful health effects.
Chemtronics Electro-Wash Tri-V Precision Cleaner and Max-Kleen Tri-V Heavy-duty Degreaser are nonflammable cleaners that quickly remove flux, grease, oils, dirt, dust, and other contaminants from electronic components, metal parts, tools, and assemblies. They remove all types of oil and grease while evaporating quickly and leaving no residues. Tri-V nPB replacement chemistry is an innovative chemistry that does not contain n-propyl bromide, TCE, hazardous air pollutants, or ozone-depleting compounds.
For more information, contact your Chemtronics application specialist at 678-928-6534 or [email protected].
References
[1] Chen, Shiang-Jiuun, et al. “Possible Involvement of Glutathione and p53 in Trichloroethylene- and Perchloroethylene-Induced Lipid Peroxidation and Apoptosis in Human Lung Cancer Cells.” Free Radical Biology and Medicine, vol. 33, no. 4, 2002, pp. 464–472., https://doi.org/10.1016/s0891-5849(02)00817-1.
[2] Brusseau, Mark L., et al. “Chapter 15 - Subsurface Pollution.” Environmental and Pollution Science, 3rd ed., Academic Press, Amsterdam, 2019, pp. 248–249.
[3] Wexler, Philip, and Bruce D. Anderson. “Trichloroethylene.” Encyclopedia of Toxicology, 3rd ed., Elsevier/AP, Academic Press Is an Imprint of Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2014, pp. 827–830.
[4] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Toxicological Review of Tetrachloroethylene (Perchloroethylene). Feb. 2012, https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/iris/iris_documents/documents/toxreviews/0106tr.pdf.
[5] IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. “Tetrachloroethylene.” Dry Cleaning, Some Chlorinated Solvents, and Other Industrial Chemicals., U.S. National Library of Medicine, 1 Jan. 1995, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK464345/.
[6] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Preliminary Information on Manufacturing, Processing, Distribution, Use, and Disposal: Tetrachloroethylene (Perchloroethylene). https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2017-02/documents/perchloroethylene.pdf.
[7] Watts, R.J., and A.L. Teel. “Groundwater and Air Contamination: Risk, Toxicity, Exposure Assessment, Policy, and Regulation.” Treatise on Geochemistry, 2014, pp. 1–12., https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-08-095975-7.00901-3.
[8] Köppel, Claus, et al. “Acute Tetrachloroethylene Poisoning - Blood Elimination Kinetics during Hyperventilation Therapy.” Journal of Toxicology: Clinical Toxicology, vol. 23, no. 2-3, 1985, pp. 103–115., https://doi.org/10.3109/15563658508990621.
[9] Altmann, Lilo, et al. “Neurophysiological and Psychophysical Measurements Reveal Effects of Acute Low-Level Organic Solvent Exposure in Humans.” International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, vol. 62, no. 7, 1990, pp. 493–499., https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00381179.
[10] Aschengrau, Ann, et al. “Affinity for Risky Behaviors Following Prenatal and Early Childhood Exposure to Tetrachloroethylene (Pce)-Contaminated Drinking Water: A Retrospective Cohort Study.” Environmental Health, vol. 10, no. 1, 2011, https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069x-10-102.
[11] Goldman, Samuel M., et al. “Solvent Exposures and Parkinson Disease Risk in Twins.” Annals of Neurology, vol. 71, no. 6, 2011, pp. 776–784., https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.22629.
[12] Getz, Kelly D., et al. “Prenatal and Early Childhood Exposure to Tetrachloroethylene and Adult Vision.” Environmental Health Perspectives, vol. 120, no. 9, 2012, pp. 1327–1332., https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1103996.
[13] Bove, Frank J, et al. “Evaluation of Mortality among Marines and Navy Personnel Exposed to Contaminated Drinking Water at USMC Base Camp Lejeune: A Retrospective Cohort Study.” Environmental Health, vol. 13, no. 1, 2014, https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069x-13-10.
[14] Lucas, D., et al. “Assessment of Exposure to Perchloroethylene and Its Clinical Repercussions for 50 Dry-Cleaning Employees.” Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene, vol. 12, no. 11, 2015, pp. 767–773., https://doi.org/10.1080/15459624.2015.1048346.
[15] Franchini, I., et al. “Early Indicators of Renal Damage in Workers Exposed to Organic Solvents.” International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, vol. 52, no. 1, 1983, pp. 1–9., https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00380601.
[16] Verplanke, Anton J.W., et al. “Occupational Exposure to Tetrachloroethene and Its Effects on the Kidneys.” Journal of Occupational & Environmental Medicine, vol. 41, no. 1, 1999, pp. 11–16., https://doi.org/10.1097/00043764-199901000-00003.
[17] Andrea Trevisan, Isabella Maccà, Fr. “Kidney and Liver Biomarkers in Female Dry-Cleaning Workers Exposed to Perchloroethylene.” Biomarkers, vol. 5, no. 6, 2000, pp. 399–409., https://doi.org/10.1080/135475000750052411.
[18] Gennari, Piero, et al. “Gamma-Glutamyltransferase Isoenzyme Pattern in Workers Exposed to Tetrachloroethylene.” American Journal of Industrial Medicine, vol. 21, no. 5, 1992, pp. 661–671., https://doi.org/10.1002/ajim.4700210506.
[19] Brodkin, C A, et al. “Hepatic Ultrasonic Changes in Workers Exposed to Perchloroethylene.” Occupational and Environmental Medicine, vol. 52, no. 10, 1995, pp. 679–685., https://doi.org/10.1136/oem.52.10.679.
[20] Goldman, John A. “Connective Tissue Disease in People Exposed to Organic Chemical Solvents.” JCR: Journal of Clinical Rheumatology, vol. 2, no. 4, 1996, pp. 185–190., https://doi.org/10.1097/00124743-199608000-00005.
[21] Garabrant, D. H. “Scleroderma and Solvent Exposure among Women.” American Journal of Epidemiology, vol. 157, no. 6, 2003, pp. 493–500., https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwf223.
[22] Emara, Ashraf M., et al. “Immunotoxicity and Hematotoxicity Induced by Tetrachloroethylene in Egyptian Dry-Cleaning Workers.” Inhalation Toxicology, vol. 22, no. 2, 2010, pp. 117–124., https://doi.org/10.3109/08958370902934894.
[23] Chaigne, Benjamin, et al. “Primary Sjögren's Syndrome and Occupational Risk Factors: A Case-Control Study.” Journal of Autoimmunity, vol. 60, 2015, pp. 80–85., https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaut.2015.04.004.
[24] Olsen, Jørn, et al. “Low Birthweight, Congenital Malformations, and Spontaneous Abortions among Dry-Cleaning Workers in Scandinavia.” Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health, vol. 16, no. 3, 1990, pp. 163–168., https://doi.org/10.5271/sjweh.1800.
[25] Windham, Gayle C., et al. “Exposure to Organic Solvents and Adverse Pregnancy Outcome.” American Journal of Industrial Medicine, vol. 20, no. 2, 1991, pp. 241–259., https://doi.org/10.1002/ajim.4700200210.
[26] Eskenazi, Brenda, et al. “A Study of the Effect of Perchloroethylene Exposure on Semen Quality in Dry-Cleaning Workers.” American Journal of Industrial Medicine, vol. 20, no. 5, 1991, pp. 575–591., https://doi.org/10.1002/ajim.4700200502.
[27] Aschengrau, Ann, et al. “Prenatal Exposure to Tetrachloroethylene-Contaminated Drinking Water and the Risk of CONGENITAL ANOMALIES: A Retrospective Cohort Study.” Environmental Health, vol. 8, no. 1, 2009, https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069x-8-44.
[28] Calvert, G. M., et al. “Mortality and End-Stage Renal Disease Incidence among Dry-Cleaning Workers.” Occupational and Environmental Medicine, vol. 68, no. 10, 2010, pp. 709–716., https://doi.org/10.1136/oem.2010.060665.
[29] Ruckart, Perri Zeitz, et al. “Evaluation of Exposure to Contaminated Drinking Water and Specific Birth Defects and Childhood Cancers at Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune, North Carolina: A Case-Control Study.” Environmental Health, vol. 12, no. 1, 2013, https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069x-12-104.
[30] Bove, Frank J, et al. “Evaluation of Mortality among Marines and Navy Personnel Exposed to Contaminated Drinking Water at USMC Base Camp Lejeune: A Retrospective Cohort Study.” Environmental Health, vol. 13, no. 1, 2014, https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069x-13-10.
[31] Bulka, Catherine, et al. “Relations between Residential Proximity to EPA-Designated Toxic Release Sites and Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma Incidence.” Southern Medical Journal, vol. 109, no. 10, 2016, pp. 606–614., https://doi.org/10.14423/smj.0000000000000545.
[32] Carton, Matthieu, et al. “Occupational Exposure to Solvents and Risk of Head and Neck Cancer in Women: A Population-Based Case-Control Study in France.” BMJ Open, vol. 7, no. 1, 2017, https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2016-012833.
[33] Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). “Trichloroethylene - US EPA.” Trichloroethylene, EPA, https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2016-09/documents/trichloroethylene.pdf.
[34] International Agency for Research on Cancer. Dry Cleaning, Some Chlorinated Solvents, and Other Industrial Chemicals. Vol. 63, IARC, 1995.
[35] Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. “Trichloroethylene (TCE).” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 22 June 2020, https://wwwn.cdc.gov/TSP/ToxProfiles/ToxProfiles.aspx?id=173&tid=30.
[36] Wu, C, and J Schaum. “Exposure Assessment of Trichloroethylene.” Environmental Health Perspectives, vol. 108, no. suppl 2, 2000, pp. 359–363., https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.00108s2359.
[37] Barret, L., et al. “Evoked Trigeminal Nerve Potential in Chronic Trichloroethylene Intoxication.” Journal of Toxicology: Clinical Toxicology, vol. 19, no. 4, 1982, pp. 419–423., https://doi.org/10.3109/15563658208992496.
[38] Troster, A. I., and R. M. Ruff. “Neuropsychological Sequelae of Exposure to the Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Solvents Trichloroethylene and Trichloroethane.” Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, vol. 5, no. 1, 1990, pp. 31–47., https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/5.1.31.
[39] Burg, Jeanne R., and Ginger L. Gist. “Health Effects of Environmental Contaminant Exposure: An Intrafile Comparison of the Trichloroethylene Subregistry.” Archives of Environmental Health: An International Journal, vol. 54, no. 4, 1999, pp. 231–241., https://doi.org/10.1080/00039899909602480.
[40] Kilburn, Kaye H. “Is Neurotoxicity Associated with Environmental Trichloroethylene (TCE)?” Archives of Environmental Health: An International Journal, vol. 57, no. 2, 2002, pp. 113–120., https://doi.org/10.1080/00039890209602925.
[41] Reif, John S., et al. “Neurobehavioral Effects of Exposure to Trichloroethylene through a Municipal Water Supply.” Environmental Research, vol. 93, no. 3, 2003, pp. 248–258., https://doi.org/10.1016/s0013-9351(03)00131-2.
[42] Seldén, Anders, et al. “Trichloroethylene Exposure in Vapour Degreasing and the Urinary Excretion of N-Acetyl-β-D-Glucosaminidase.” Archives of Toxicology, vol. 67, no. 3, 1993, pp. 224–226., https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01973312.
[43] Brüning, Thomas, et al. “Glutathione Transferase Alpha as a Marker for Tubular Damage after Trichloroethylene Exposure.” Archives of Toxicology, vol. 73, no. 4-5, 1999, pp. 246–254., https://doi.org/10.1007/s002040050613.
[44] Green, T. “Biological Monitoring of Kidney Function among Workers Occupationally Exposed to Trichloroethylene.” Occupational and Environmental Medicine, vol. 61, no. 4, 2004, pp. 312–317., https://doi.org/10.1136/oem.2003.007153.
[45] Lee, L J-H. “Increased Mortality Odds Ratio of Male Liver Cancer in a Community Contaminated by Chlorinated Hydrocarbons in Groundwater.” Occupational and Environmental Medicine, vol. 60, no. 5, 2003, pp. 364–369., https://doi.org/10.1136/oem.60.5.364.
[46] Jung, Hyun Gul, et al. “Trichloroethylene Hypersensitivity Syndrome: A Disease of Fatal Outcome.” Yonsei Medical Journal, vol. 53, no. 1, 2012, p. 231., https://doi.org/10.3349/ymj.2012.53.1.231.
[47] Raaschou-Nielsen, O. “Cancer Risk among Workers at Danish Companies Using Trichloroethylene: A Cohort Study.” American Journal of Epidemiology, vol. 158, no. 12, 2003, pp. 1182–1192., https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwg282.
[48] Radican, Larry, et al. “Mortality of Aircraft Maintenance Workers Exposed to Trichloroethylene and Other Hydrocarbons and Chemicals: Extended Follow-Up.” Journal of Occupational & Environmental Medicine, vol. 50, no. 11, 2008, pp. 1306–1319., https://doi.org/10.1097/jom.0b013e3181845f7f.
[49] Zhang, L., et al. “Alterations in Serum Immunoglobulin Levels in Workers Occupationally Exposed to Trichloroethylene.” Carcinogenesis, vol. 34, no. 4, 2012, pp. 799–802., https://doi.org/10.1093/carcin/bgs403.
[50] EPA. “General Health State of Women Professionally Exposed to Trichloroethylene Vapours.” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, https://hero.epa.gov/index.cfm/reference/details/reference_id/724197.
[51] SAIHAN, E.M., et al. “A New Syndrome with Pigmentation, Scleroderma, Gynaecomastia, Raynaud's Phenomenon, and Peripheral Neuropath.” British Journal of Dermatology, vol. 99, no. 4, 1978, pp. 437–440., https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2133.1978.tb06184.x.
[52] Sallmén, Markku, et al. “Reduced Fertility among Women Exposed to Organic Solvents.” American Journal of Industrial Medicine, vol. 27, no. 5, 1995, pp. 699–713., https://doi.org/10.1002/ajim.4700270506.
[53] Chia, Sin-Eng, et al. “Semen Parameters in Workers Exposed to Trichloroethylene.” Reproductive Toxicology, vol. 10, no. 4, 1996, pp. 295–299., https://doi.org/10.1016/0890-6238(96)00058-5.
[54] EPA. “Final Report: Evaluation of Priority Health Conditions in a Community with Historical Contamination by Trichloroethylene.” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, https://hero.epa.gov/hero/index.cfm/reference/details/reference_id/730414.
[55] Henschler, D., et al. “Increased Incidence of Renal Cell Tumors in a Cohort of Cardboard Workers Exposed to Trichloroethene.” Archives of Toxicology, vol. 69, no. 5, 1995, pp. 291–299., https://doi.org/10.1007/s002040050173.
[56] Anttila, Ahti, et al. “Cancer Incidence among Finnish Workers Exposed to Halogenated Hydrocarbons.” Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, vol. 37, no. 7, 1995, pp. 797–806., https://doi.org/10.1097/00043764-199507000-00008.
[57] Blair, A., et al. “Mortality and Cancer Incidence of Aircraft Maintenance Workers Exposed to Trichloroethylene and Other Organic Solvents and Chemicals: Extended Follow Up.” Occupational and Environmental Medicine, vol. 55, no. 3, 1998, pp. 161–171., https://doi.org/10.1136/oem.55.3.161.
[58] Raaschou-Nielsen, O. “Cancer Risk among Workers at Danish Companies Using Trichloroethylene: A Cohort Study.” American Journal of Epidemiology, vol. 158, no. 12, 2003, pp. 1182–1192., https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwg282.
[59] Coyle, Yvonne M., et al. “An Ecological Study of the Association of Environmental Chemicals on Breast Cancer Incidence in Texas.” Breast Cancer Research and Treatment, vol. 92, no. 2, 2005, pp. 107–114., https://doi.org/10.1007/s10549-004-8268-z.
[60] Zhao, Yingxu, et al. “Estimated Effects of Solvents and Mineral Oils on Cancer Incidence and Mortality in a Cohort of Aerospace Workers.” American Journal of Industrial Medicine, vol. 48, no. 4, 2005, pp. 249–258., https://doi.org/10.1002/ajim.20216.
[61] Krishnadasan, Anusha, et al. “Nested Case-Control Study of Occupational Chemical Exposures and Prostate Cancer in Aerospace and Radiation Workers.” American Journal of Industrial Medicine, vol. 50, no. 5, 2007, pp. 383–390., https://doi.org/10.1002/ajim.20458.
[62] Sung, Tzu-I., et al. “Increased Risk of Cancer in the Offspring of Female Electronics Workers.” Reproductive Toxicology, vol. 25, no. 1, 2008, pp. 115–119., https://doi.org/10.1016/j.reprotox.2007.08.004.
[63] Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). “Toxicological Profile for Tetrachloroethylene.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 22 June 2020, https://wwwn.cdc.gov/TSP/ToxProfiles/ToxProfiles.aspx?id=265&tid=48.
[64] Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). “Toxicological Profile for Trichloroethylene.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 22 June 2020, https://wwwn.cdc.gov/TSP/ToxProfiles/ToxProfiles.aspx?id=173&tid=30.
Ask A Technical Question
Stay up-to-date on Chemtronics news, products, videos & more.